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- Paint, Colour, and Style: The Contribution of Minerals to the Palette of the Descent from the Cross, Attributed to the Portuguese Painter Francisco João (act. 1558 1595)Publication . Melo, Helena; Cruz, António João; Sanyova, Jana; Valadas, Sara; Cardoso, AnaThe paint materials and techniques of The Descent from Cross, a panel painting attributed to the Portuguese painter Francisco João (act. 1558–1595), were investigated with a combination of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared imaging and an analysis of paint samples with microscopic, spectroscopic, and chromatographic techniques. The colour palette is composed of lead white, lead–tin yellow, minium, vermilion, ochres of different colours, umber, smalt, azurite, verdigris, charcoal black, and a variety of different-coloured red lakes made of brazilwood and cochineal. An oil-based medium was identified. The characterisation of the pigment mixtures, paint build-up, and particular paint handling techniques enabled us to determine their role in the style and formal appearance of this painting and to discuss Portuguese painting practices in the larger context of 16th-century European painting. Mineral and elemental associations or impurities in the blue pigments, as well as degradation issues affecting minium, and smalt paints were reported. In particular, the deterioration of the glass matrix in some of the smalt particles mixed in lead white paint raises special concern.
- Images in transformation: The color and its change in a group of Portuguese paintings from the second half of the 16th centuryPublication . Melo, Helena Pinheiro de; Cruz, António João; Sanyova, Jana; Valadas, Sara; Cardoso, Ana Margarida; Candeias, AntónioFour panel paintings depicting episodes related to the birth of Christ and attributed to the Portuguese mannerist painter Francisco João (doc. 1558–1585) were found to exhibit a muted palette that had no correspondence with the traditionally vivid colors used in the sixteenth century to represent joyful biblical events. Complementing previous research on the disruption and loss of the red glazes in these paintings, the investigation focused on the analysis of materials, painting technique and degradation issues that further affected the original paintings, changing the viewer's perception and understanding of these artworks. The investigation combined the visual examination of the painting surface with microscopic and spectroscopic analysis of the binder and pigments. A conventional palette made of lead white, lead-tin yellow, ochres, vermilion, verdigris, smalt, azurite, carbon black and a red lake made of brazilwood and cochineal was identified. The pigments were bound in an oil-based medium. Chemical and physical alterations detected in paints rich in smalt and verdigris were found to be responsible for color changes affecting significant areas of the compositions. The presence of moisture and the reaction between pigment and binder leading, among other products, to soap and oxalate formation, played a central role in the long-term behavior of the paint film. Understanding the main degradation processes involved and their consequences is crucial when interpreting an artists' color palette and designing the best approach to preserve these paintings.